War and peace

In this chapter, turn from Metaphysics, the Object, and Ethical theory to more immediate affairs. First consider a modern problem and the issues that it may entail and then consider what has been learned

In considering ‘war and peace’ it will be seen that ethical problems are not problems in isolation. It is also seen that the isolated treatment of examples are inadequate guides to action. Action is never ‘ethically pure’

An important modern ‘ethical concern’ is that of war and peace. The concern is broader than the stated one for war and peace are related to questions of aggression and of terrorism. Additionally, an adequate treatment of war and peace requires examination of the ‘causes’ of war and the probable prerequisites of peace which include the human psyche (aggression) and social behavior (especially politics,) population, and resources (especially, c. 2000, energy.) Thus, in considering war and peace a variety of ethical and other concerns are entailed and will be taken up. The discussion will attempt to illustrate ‘ethical principle,’ relations among the different aspects of Ethics and relations among individual and group Morals (in the question of translation of individual attitudes into action) and among realism (in the question of definition below) and circumstance

Aggression and resources

Access to resources is one (not always stated) root of war and increase of populations results in a greater need for resources. In the long term, avoiding war may be promoted by conservation and by addressing the population concern. Appropriate energy (and other resources, especially food) is also important. Energy research is probably vital—current expenditures on energy development and research, however, are a fraction of the cost of access to oil (‘access’ includes war and occupation)

The problem of resources: the example of energy

There is a variety of lines that energy research may take. Renewable energy (solar, wind, small scale hydropower) is generally cleaner energy. A number of parts of the world have large coal reserves; research into making the use of coal clean is important (at least) because as oil becomes scarce, nations will face economic pressure to use coal. Research in using energy reserves (oil, coal, nuclear…) to produce clean fuels is important (free hydrogen is not naturally occurring and requires energy to produce it and the currently practical ways that might be used to produce hydrogen for large scale production release carbon dioxide which is the ‘greenhouse’ gas implicated in global warming.) Research in controlled nuclear fusion should receive greater emphasis. Research into use of the energy of the ‘quantum vacuum’ remains in a primitive and conceptual stage and lacks any definite estimate of the practicality of the potential; it is clear, however, that the magnitude of this possible source dwarfs all conventional, renewable and nuclear sources and it is this magnitude that is a source of the potential which includes the possibility of cataclysmic destruction e.g. of the known universe…

Resource use, population and environment

Energy access indirectly affects population. While a large amount of attention is paid to oil rich nations, other nations that face a variety of severe problems including internal war (and genocide) are ignored and even apart from the obvious ethical issue, ongoing poverty may be destabilizing to politics and population. Resource and energy consumption have a variety of probable effects—desertification and deforestation, change in atmospheric composition and, consequently, probable and possibly catastrophic climatic change. As of 2008 many persons may object to reference to climatic change as probable. There may be two reasons to prefer reference to probability; the first is that even quantitative correlation does not imply a causal connection (and to think that the connection is necessary may ignore non-included factors that may make the situation ‘worse’ than is implied by necessity i.e. a causal connection.) A second reason is that an exclusive emphasis on necessity implies that action need not be undertaken when connections are merely probable… It is not clear that an adequate solution to any single issue or to each issue separately may provide an adequate response to the constellation of issues. If there is a single approach to the multi-dimensional concerns, it may lie in human awareness and will and their application; perhaps these should be regarded as equal or prior to the economic (conservation) and technological approaches

The utility of definition

What is war? What is terrorism? What is genocide? These all come under the heading of wide spread aggression and it is not clear that definitions are necessary (and, in any case, definitions can be used to put ethical concerns aside e.g. torture has been justified by claiming that prisoners taken are not prisoners of war.) Regarding war, there is a point of view called ‘political realism’ according to which morals that apply to individuals do not apply to nations and that the responsibility of a government is to further national self-interest at all costs. What justifies a war of aggression—for whatever reason? Is there a valid point of view according to which even self-defense is unethical? Is a war to eliminate an abusive regime or a terrorist base in another nation justified? What is the moral authority of the ‘nation?’ (Why should the people of New York, in the northeast US be less responsible and responsive to the people in neighboring Ontario, Canada than to the people in distant California? What has been established constitutionally naturally carries weight but should this weight be absolute?) Does international sanction make war morally right—or merely more diplomatic? If a nation is suspected of harboring ‘terrorist groups’ or stockpiling instruments of war and destruction, must certainty of evidence be necessary for invasion? When does evidence justify invasion? It must be asked that since moral concerns seem to be routinely ignored, what the Value of moral considerations may be. A proper response includes that the presence of morals cannot be expected to be altogether effective but have some direct effect (on decisions) and indirect effect (on the intent to do Good;) in addition to enquiring of the efficacy of morals already in place, it is also significant to reflect on the possible outcomes of an absence of morals. In the absence of a moral sense (or in its exclusion by apathy, by disregarding the humanity of certain populations, or by routine denial of human rights concerns in government) formal considerations of morals are likely to have little effect

Morals are important but purity is an illusion

They would like to suggest that war is invariably wrong (not right.) There are, however, two hesitations. The first concerns self-defense—is self-defense wrong? Is self-defense war? The questions have practical and symbolic aspects in addition to the obviously moral aspect and it is perhaps more important to remain aware of the concerns than to give answers—perhaps such awareness will be more instrumental toward good than the provision of answers. The second concerns their awareness of the limits of their thought and their emotional being and their values; this admission, they hope, may encourage into negotiation those who feel that their positions are irrevocable

Morals in practice

The following, then, are morally important. First, cultivating and sustaining moral intuition; and addressing institutions that may suppress or avoid it including education, philosophy, and rational or systematic ethics. Moral intuition should be cultivated so as to include questions of feasibility. Second, translating individual attitudes into (large scale) group attitudes and action. A necessary preliminary to action is the careful and open acquisition and examination of situation-specific information. Action itself should (generally) begin with diplomacy and the least harmful means. ‘Sanctions’ are not intrinsically clean and result in enormous but often invisible hardship and suffering. These are causally prior (to the specific moral concerns) and their cultivation is likely to encourage ethical Understanding and attention to the specific concerns

Related thoughts appear in the later section ‘Faith’

Summary

What has been learned? This chapter considered a range of—modern—moral concerns regarding quality of life and has shown interaction or non-independence of the issues; it suggested the virtues of holism and rejecting substance thinking. Expectation that solutions are guaranteed—substance—generates nihilism and inaction. There was consideration of principles of solution, issues of inertia, culture, respect, communication, dependence on technology, adequate vs. advanced technology… and solutions and solution patchworks

Also considered—the separation of ‘pure’ and ‘applied’ ethics—the idea that ethical principles can stand altogether in the abstract e.g. that there is an absolute distinction to be made between deontological and teleological ethics. It is not clear that there should be a separation of ‘pure’ and ‘applied’ ethics

War and peace emphasized the incomplete separability of ethical concerns from economic, political and other institutional issues—in both conceptual and practical terms

Civilization and history

The present chapter Civilization and history is abbreviated from a previous version. The brief version below may stand alone and have sense on account of foregoing developments that are refined since previous versions

Civilization is the universal matrix of beings with cognitive and affective forms of sentience (it has been seen that an absence of free and bound forms of cognition-emotion is severely limiting on possibility—potential—and empathy)

‘History’ is a reconstructed narrative of civilization. The form of ‘narrative’ may be literary, artistic, dramatic… History is a form of connection among the matrix

The realism of the preceding ideal thoughts is made possible and their realization shown necessary by Theory of being

The highest ideal

The present chapter The highest ideal is abbreviated from a previous version. The brief version below may stand alone and have sense on account of foregoing developments that are refined since previous versions

A first source of possible ideals is tradition; every ideal may be questioned; ideals may be in conflict

A highest ideal includes discovery of ideals—of what the highest ideal may be; this idea makes a return to idealism possible and consistent with death and conflict of ideals; and in, in giving a process character to ideals, makes idealism consistent with practical realism

A search for the real-ideal may be conceived as a journey; this journey is—includes and has motive in—search for that ideal

Theory of Being gives sense and Human Being gives initial realism, grounding and flesh to this search